Dehydrogenation of aliphatic compounds produces known compounds the corresponding unsaturated analog. Those products can be employed in various processes. The most likely use of those products is in conversion processes to produce a variety of petrochemicals or liquid fuels like poly gasoline, motor alkylate and methyl tertiary butyl ether. Dehydrogenation requirements of each of the members of the group C.sub.2 -C.sub.5 alkanes differ. Those differing requirements reflect the reaction pathways involved and the thermodynamic properties of the starting materials and of the products. For example, butane dehydrogenation conditions can also effect butane isomerization and cracking, as major side reactions, which decrease the selectivity of the specific reaction for the product. When catalyzed by a solid catalyst, those cracking side-reactions can result in coking and/or aging of the catalyst necessitating regeneration procedures.
Dehydrocyclization of aliphatic C.sub.6 + compounds produces known aromatic compounds. For example, benzene and toluene are the products of n-hexane and n-heptane dehydrocyclization reactions.
Catalytic reforming is a process in which hydrocarbon molecules are rearranged, or reformed in the presence of a catalyst. The molecular rearrangement results in an increase in the octane rating of the feedstock. Thus, during reforming low octane hydrocarbons in the gasoline boiling range are converted into high octane components by dehydrogenation of naphthenes and isomerization, dehydrocyclization and hydrocracking of paraffins.
By way of illustration the significance of those reactions in reforming can be gleaned from a review of the following table from "Catalysis," Vol VI, P.H. Emmett (ed). Copyright 1958 by Litton Educational Publishing Company:
______________________________________ Octane Numbers of Pure Hydrocarbons Blending research octane Hydrocarbon number (clear) ______________________________________ Paraffins: n-Butane 113 n-Pentane 62 n-Hexane 19 n-Heptane 0 n-Octane -19 2-Methylhexane 41 2,2-Dimethylpentane 89 2,2,3-Trimethylbutane 113 Naphthenes (cycloparaffins): Methylcyclopentane 107 1.1-Dimethylcyclopentane 96 Cyclohexane 110 Methylcyclohexane 104 Ethylcyclohexane 43 Aromatics: Benzene 99 Toluene 124 1,3-Dimethylbenzene 145 Isopropylbenzene 132 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 171 ______________________________________
Naphtha reforming may also be utilized for the production of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene aromatics. A valuable by-product of naphtha reforming is hydrogen, which may be utilized for hydrotreating and upgrading of other hydrocarbon fractions. Generally, the molecular rearrangement of molecular components of a feed, which occurs during reforming, results in only slight, if any, changes in the boiling point of the reformate (the product of reforming), compared to that of the feed. Accordingly, reforming differs from both cracking and alkylation, both refinery processes, each of which does result in changes of boiling range of the product compared to the feed. That is, in cracking, large molecules are cracked into smaller ones; whereas, in alkylation small molecules are rebuilt into larger molecules.
The most important uses of the reforming process are briefly mentioned: the primary use of catalytic reforming may be concisely stated to be an octane upgrader and a route to premium gasoline.
Catalytic reforming is the only refining process that is capable of economically making a gasoline component having high clear research octane ratings. The charge to the reformer (straight-run, thermal, or hydrocracker naphtha) is usually available in large quantities and is of such low quality that most of it would be unsaleable without reforming.
A correlative use of catalytic reforming is in its ability to produce gasolines of acceptable volatility over a wide range of yields, through proper selection of feedstock and/or operating conditions. The refiner is thus able to vary the yield of gasoline very substantially to meet demand fluctuations. For European demand patterns, where gasoline sales are limiting and it is desired to produce as much middle distillate as practicable, the reformer can be operated on a lighter, lower volume of naphtha to minimize gasoline production while maintaining high crude runs.
Hydrogen, although often considered a by-product, is still a valuable output from the reformer. Normally, it is produced in amounts ranging from 300 to 1200 SCF/Bbl, depending on the type of feed stock and reformer operating conditions. Reformer hydrogen is used to remove unwanted contaminants from reformer feed stocks, for hydrodesulfurization of distillates, hydrocracking of heavy fractions, hydrotreating of lubes and various chemical operations. Hydrogen availability and utilization is expected to assume increasing importance as pollution restrictions lead to increasing hydroprocessing in future years.
The importance of reforming is reflected by data which indicates that finished pool gasoline is about 35% reformate in complex refineries, but can run as high as 80% in topping-reforming refineries. As lead is phased out of gasoline, more and more straight run stocks which are now blended directly into gasoline will be reformed. All current commercial reformers use a platinum containing catalyst with a hydrogen recycle stream. Within this broad definition, there are a great number of different process designs. More than 75% of the industry's reforming capacity is classified as semi-regenerative. A semi-regenerative reformer is one which runs until the catalyst is coked and then is shut down and regenerated. The time period between regenerations varies from several months to as long as 11/2 years.
Within the category of semi-regenerative reforming, a further breakdown can be made on the basis of operating pressure. Units with separator pressures of 450 psig or higher are considered high pressure units. Those with pressures of 300 psig or less are called low pressure units. Anything in between is intermediate pressure. Most of the older units are high pressure, while the newer designs are low or intermediate pressure. Lower pressures give better reformate yields at a given octane level.
Another type of reformer is the cyclic variety. A cyclic unit has the reactors manifolded in such a way that any reactor can be taken out of reforming service and regenerated while the other reactors are still reforming. The time period between regenerations for a cyclic reactor varies from 2 to 10 days. All cyclics are low pressure.
A third type of reformer that has recently been commercialized is the continuous unit. In this type of reformer, catalyst is withdrawn from the unit during reforming, regenerated in small batches in separate regeneration facilities and then replaced in the unit. The regeneration period for continuous units is about one month. As in the case for cyclic units, all continuous units are low pressure.
Prior to about 1950 chromium oxide or molybdenum oxide supported on alumina were used to effect the two functions of a reforming catalyst. The hydrogenation-dehydrogenation function for paraffin olefin conversion during reforming is effected by the metals chromium and molybdenum and more recently platinum, rhenium, admixtures thereof and noble-metal containing trimetallic alloys. Isomerization activity was provided by the acidified alumina.
From the commercialization of platinum reforming in the middle 1950's to the late 1960's, there were no significant improvements in reforming catalysts.
In the late 1960's a dramatic breakthrough in reforming catalysts occurred. This was the introduction of the platinum-rhenium bimetallic catalysts. These catalysts have greatly improved stability compared to platinum-only catalysts. By way of background, the platinum and platinum bimetallic catalysts were generally supported on carriers.
The standard dual functional reforming catalysts exhibited high selectivity for cracking. Recently, the patent literature has started to recognize the use of platinum and non-acidic zeolite containing catalyst compositions in reforming. It has been reported that nonacidic catalysts are superior to the dual functional catalyst in selectivities, for example, those nonacidic catalysts based on zeolite X, Y, L, omega and mordenite. J. R. Bernard, PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL ZEOLITE CONFERENCE, Zeolite Conference, p686-695 (Naples 1980).
Zeolites include naturally occurring and synthetic zeolites. They exhibit catalytic properties for various types of hydrocarbon conversions. Zeolites are porous crystalline aluminosilicates having definite crystalline structure as determined by X-ray diffraction studies. Such zeolites have pores of uniform size which are uniquely determined by unit structure of the crystal. The zeolites are referred to as "molecular sieves" because interconnecting channel systems created by pores of uniform pore size allow a zeolite to selectively absorb molecules of certain dimensions and shapes.
By way of background, one authority has described the zeolites structurally, as "framework" aluminosilicates which are based on an infinitely extending three-dimensional network of AlO.sub.4 and SiO.sub.4 tetrahedra linked to each other by sharing all of the oxygen atoms. Furthermore, the same authority indicates that zeolites may be represented by the empirical formula EQU M.sub.2/n O.Al.sub.2 O.sub.3.xSiO.sub.2.yH.sub.2 O
In the empirical formula, x is equal to or greater than 2, since AlO.sub.4 tetrahedra are joined only to SiO.sub.4 tetrahedra, and n is the valence of the cation designated m. D. Breck, ZEOLITE MOLECULAR SIEVES, John Wiley & Sons, New York p.5 (1974). In the empirical formula, the ratio of the total of silicon and aluminum atoms to oxygen atoms is 1:2. M was described therein to be sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and/or barium, which complete the electrovalence makeup of the empirical formula.
The pore sizes of medium pore zeolites range from about 5 to about 7 Angstroms.
Another class of zeolites sometimes referred to as large pore zeolites include inter alia naturally occurring faujasite, synthetic zeolites X,L,Y and zeolite beta. These zeolites are characterized by pore sizes greater than thoseoof the medium pore zeolites.